Contrary to popular belief, the theory of evolution did not originate with Charles Darwin. Its conceptual roots extend back to Anaximander, the Ancient Greek philosopher who proposed that all animals emerged through gradual transformations, with humans representing a stage in this evolutionary chain. He even postulated that the earliest living organisms were aquatic, specifically fish. In the history of Islamic thought, debates on creation reveal perspectives that bear striking similarities to evolutionary theory, articulated by Muslim scholars centuries before Darwin. Throughout history, many Muslim thinkers maintained that following the initial act of creation, God brought forth certain species from others. This is reflected in the Arabic verb khalaqa (to create), which, in addition to bringing something from non-existence, encompasses the meanings of “determining a measure” (taqdīr) and “originating one form of life from another. ” Guided by the Qur'ān, Muslim scholars utilized philosophical methods to deepen their inquiries into the nature of existence.
Contrary to popular belief, the theory of evolution did not originate with Charles Darwin. Itsconceptual roots extend back to Anaximander, the Ancient Greek philosopher who proposedthat all animals emerged through gradual transformations, with humans representing astage in this evolutionary chain. He even postulated that the earliest living organisms wereaquatic, specifically fish.
In the history of Islamic thought, debates on creation reveal perspectives that bear strikingsimilarities to evolutionary theory, articulated by Muslim scholars centuries before Darwin.Throughout history, many Muslim thinkers maintained that following the initial act ofcreation, God brought forth certain species from others. This is reflected in the Arabic verbkhalaqa (to create), which, in addition to bringing something from non-existence,encompasses the meanings of “determining a measure” (taqdīr) and “originating one form oflife from another.” Guided by the Qur’ān, Muslim scholars utilized philosophical methods todeepen their inquiries into the nature of existence.
By the late seventh century, the emergence oftheological (kalām), philosophical, and scientificinquiry led Muslims to investigate questionssurrounding the origin of the universe, particularlyhow and when creation occurred, whilemaintaining their belief in divine creation.However, although many verses of the Qur’ānprovide information regarding the creation of theuniverse and humanity, it is difficult at first glanceto find a definitive, systematic solution to thematter within the text, as this information ispresented in a concise and scattered manner. TheProphet and his companions were not primarilyconcerned with such cosmological details, as theirprimary duty was to propagate the new religionand establish social order.
When examining Islamic literature, oneencounters narratives regarding creation derivedfrom the traditional Jewish corpus, termedIsrā’iliyyāt, which entered the tradition throughreports attributed to the Prophet. A significantreason for the rapid dissemination of thesenarratives is the shared Judeo-Christian depictionof the universe being created ex nihilo (fromnothing). Another factor is that these accounts,similar to the Qur’ān, describe creation originatingfrom elements such as water, soil, and clay.Consequently, as a reaction against folk beliefsrooted in these traditions and againstcosmological thought based on Classical Greekand Hellenistic philosophy, evolutionary ideas inIslamic thought began to emerge more visibly inthe 9th century. The earliest instance of this isfound in al-Naẓẓām (d. 231/845) whose textsreflect this shift through his critiques ofcontemporary views on creation.
The foundational teaching of Islam isthat God is the Creator of the universe.This is established in the very firstrevealed verses of the Qur’ān: “Read inthe name of your God who created—created man from a clinging substance!”In addition to these initial verses fromSūrah al-‘Alaq, (1-2), various otherverses and certain ḥadīths affirm thathumans, plants, the earth, and theheavens—in short, all existence—werecreated by God. Within the framework ofthese revelations, the early Muslims,alongside the Prophet, maintained thebelief that the universe was created byGod ex nihilo, a conviction that remainscentral to the faith today.
Professor John William Draper encounteredevolutionary theory within the epistles of theIkhwān al-Ṣafā (Brethren of Purity) and theworks of various other Muslim thinkers. InDraper’s work, translated into Turkish asNizâ‘-ı İlm ü Dîn: slâm ve Ulûm (The Historyof the Conflict Between Religion and Science )with extensive commentary and additions byAhmed Midhat Efendi, the author addressedthe subject with the following observations:“We are sometimes surprised to find in theirworks ideas that we assume to have emergedin our own century. This is precisely the casewith the modern doctrine of evolution andthe development of living beings being taughtin schools. Indeed, they took this doctrinemuch further than our own application byextending it even to inanimate matter andminerals.”
In his article titled “Khalq el-Kāՙināt”, Professor Muhammad Hamidullah notes that long beforeLamarck, Darwin, or even Buffon, certain works containing ideas related to evolutionary ideashad already been translated from Arabic into various European languages.
In conclusion, these assessments by international scholars underscore that evolutionary ideas inthe Islamic world were not mere precursors to modern science. Rather, they represented asophisticated and independent tradition of cosmological inquiry that anticipated many laterWestern discussions on the subject by centuries. This historical trajectory reveals that theintellectual dynamism of the Islamic world provided a fertile ground for understanding theorigins and development of life long before the modern era.
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al-Isfahani, Ragib.“Ḫalaḳa”, Tafṣīl el-Neş’eteyn ve Taḥṣīl el- Saՙādeteyn, (Ankara, 1974).
Bayrakdar, Mehmet. İslam’da Evrimci Yaratılış Teorisi, 2. Baskı (Ankara: Otto Yayınları, 2001).
DRAPER, James William. Les Conflits de la Science et de la Religion, 10. Baskı (Paris, 1900).