Contrary to popular belief, the theory of evolution did not originate with Charles Darwin. Its conceptual roots extend back to Anaximander, the Ancient Greek philosopher who proposed that all animals emerged through gradual transformations, with humans representing a stage in this evolutionary chain. He even postulated that the earliest living organisms were aquatic, specifically fish. In the history of Islamic thought, debates on creation reveal perspectives that bear striking similarities to evolutionary theory, articulated by Muslim scholars centuries before Darwin. Throughout history, many Muslim thinkers maintained that following the initial act of creation, God brought forth certain species from others. This is reflected in the Arabic verb khalaqa (to create), which, in addition to bringing something from non-existence, encompasses the meanings of “determining a measure” (taqdīr) and “originating one form of life from another. ” Guided by the Qur'ān, Muslim scholars utilized philosophical methods to deepen their inquiries into the nature of existence.
Contrary to popular belief, the theory of evolution did not originate with Charles Darwin. Its conceptual roots extend back to Anaximander, the Ancient Greek philosopher who proposed that all animals emerged through gradual transformations, with humans representing a stage in this evolutionary chain. He even postulated that the earliest living organisms were aquatic, specifically fish.
In the history of Islamic thought, debates on creation reveal perspectives that bear striking similarities to evolutionary theory, articulated by Muslim scholars centuries before Darwin. Throughout history, many Muslim thinkers maintained that following the initial act of creation, God brought forth certain species from others. This is reflected in the Arabic verb khalaqa (to create), which, in addition to bringing something from non-existence, encompasses the meanings of “determining a measure” (taqdīr) and “originating one form of life from another.” Guided by the Qur’ān, Muslim scholars utilized philosophical methods to deepen their inquiries into the nature of existence.
By the late seventh century, the emergence of theological (kalām), philosophical, and scientific inquiry led Muslims to investigate questions surrounding the origin of the universe, particularly how and when creation occurred, while maintaining their belief in divine creation. However, although many verses of the Qur’ān provide information regarding the creation of the universe and humanity, it is difficult at first glance to find a definitive, systematic solution to the matter within the text, as this information is presented in a concise and scattered manner. The Prophet and his companions were not primarily concerned with such cosmological details, as their primary duty was to propagate the new religion and establish social order.
When examining Islamic literature, one encounters narratives regarding creation derived from the traditional Jewish corpus, termed Isrā’iliyyāt, which entered the tradition through reports attributed to the Prophet. A significant reason for the rapid dissemination of these narratives is the shared Judeo-Christian depiction of the universe being created ex nihilo (from nothing). Another factor is that these accounts, similar to the Qur’ān, describe creation originating from elements such as water, soil, and clay. Consequently, as a reaction against folk beliefs rooted in these traditions and against cosmological thought based on Classical Greek and Hellenistic philosophy, evolutionary ideas in Islamic thought began to emerge more visibly in the 9th century. The earliest instance of this is found in al-Naẓẓām (d. 231/845) whose texts reflect this shift through his critiques of contemporary views on creation.
The foundational teaching of Islam is that God is the Creator of the universe. This is established in the very first revealed verses of the Qur’ān: “Read in the name of your God who created—created man from a clinging substance!” In addition to these initial verses from Sūrah al-‘Alaq, (1-2), various other verses and certain ḥadīths affirm that humans, plants, the earth, and the heavens—in short, all existence—were created by God. Within the framework of these revelations, the early Muslims, alongside the Prophet, maintained the belief that the universe was created by God ex nihilo, a conviction that remains central to the faith today.
Professor John William Draper encountered evolutionary theory within the epistles of the Ikhwān al-Ṣafā (Brethren of Purity) and the works of various other Muslim thinkers. In Draper’s work, translated into Turkish as Nizâ‘-ı İlm ü Dîn: İslâm ve Ulûm (The History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science ) with extensive commentary and additions by Ahmed Midhat Efendi, the author addressed the subject with the following observations: “We are sometimes surprised to find in their works ideas that we assume to have emerged in our own century. This is precisely the case with the modern doctrine of evolution and the development of living beings being taught in schools. Indeed, they took this doctrine much further than our own application by extending it even to inanimate matter and minerals.”
In his article titled “Khalq el-Kāՙināt”, Professor Muhammad Hamidullah notes that long before Lamarck, Darwin, or even Buffon, certain works containing ideas related to evolutionary ideas had already been translated from Arabic into various European languages.
In conclusion, these assessments by international scholars underscore that evolutionary ideas in the Islamic world were not mere precursors to modern science. Rather, they represented a sophisticated and independent tradition of cosmological inquiry that anticipated many later Western discussions on the subject by centuries. This historical trajectory reveals that the intellectual dynamism of the Islamic world provided a fertile ground for understanding the origins and development of life long before the modern era.
Bibliography
Yakıt, İsmail. “Darwin’den Önce İslam Düşünürlerinde Evrimle İlgili Fikirler”. Felsefe Arşivi, sy. 24 (Temmuz 2012).
al-Isfahani, Ragib. “Ḫalaḳa”, Tafṣīl el-Neş’eteyn ve Taḥṣīl el- Saՙādeteyn, (Ankara, 1974).
Bayrakdar, Mehmet. İslam’da Evrimci Yaratılış Teorisi, 2. Baskı (Ankara: Otto Yayınları, 2001).
DRAPER, James William. Les Conflits de la Science et de la Religion, 10. Baskı (Paris, 1900).
