THE HERITAGE OF MUSIC IN AL-ANDALUS: FROM THE EAST TO THE WEST

Music has always been an essential part of human life, as human nature inherently seeks and explores beauty. Throughout history, humans have sought to discover beautiful sounds and melodies to express their emotions, dreams, and hopes. In this article, we will explore Andalusian music and the profound impact of Ziryāb’s influence upon it.

During the Middle Ages, al-Andalus influenced other nations in various fields, including architecture, literature, science, and music. It served as an example for other countries and communities, particularly Jews and Christians living together during that period. The history of this influence began with the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by the Arabs in 711. Following the conquest, although the production and performance of music were initially limited, this did not hinder society’s love for art. Eventually, music became an essential part of life in al-Andalus. In addition, the foundations of professional musical theory inal-Andalus were established in the 9th century, largely influenced by the musical traditions arriving from the East (Mashriq), which had deep Persian and Abbasid roots.

As previously mentioned, different communities coexisted in the Iberian Peninsula. For instance, the ethnic Arabs formeda small but aristocratic elite. On the other hand, the Mozarabs were Christians who adopted Arabic culture and language while maintaining their faith. Moreover, the Sephardim(Sefardíes), Jews who lived in Spain, were producing Sephardic music, and this musical genre exhibits distinct influences from the Islamic era.

Following this, the first professional musicians arrived from the East, bringing with them Middle Eastern songs, such as Aṣfā, to al-Andalus. During this era, Córdoba became a focal point for intercultural exchange, and the Umayyad rulers provided significant patronage to musicians. To illustrate,‘Abd al-Raḥmān I hosted renowned singers in his palace, a tradition of royal support that was continued by al-Ḥakam I and ‘Abd alRaḥmān II.

When we analyze the music of al-Andalus, we find two distinct vocal forms: Muwashshaḥ and Zajal. This music was popular among Muslims, Christians and Jews, who together produced songs in both Arabic and Hebrew. Furthermore, this musical tradition significantly influenced Europe and North Africa, though it had a less pronounced effect on Ottoman and Persian music.

Firstly, I would like to introduce the muwashshaḥ. It covers a wide range of themes, including love, lamentation, and social criticism. The muwashshaḥ emerged at the end of the 10 and the beginning of the 11 centuries; it is structured with five tetrastichs called aghṣān, each with its own rhyme scheme. Additionally, between these tetrastichs, there is a refrain, and the poem typically concludes with a kharja, which holds as much importance as the opening maṭla‘.Notably, while the main body of the poem is usually written in classical Arabic, the kharja is written in Andalusian Arabic.

The other vocal type is zajal, a vernacular poetic style. In this form, poets do not strictly adhere to formal grammatical rules, instead utilizing a simpler, more colloquial Arabic in their compositions. Additionally, people who perform zajal are called zajjāl. Furthermore, zajal is the result of interaction between the local people and the Arabs; thus, it represents an adaptation of local musical traditions. Usually, it consists of five or six tetrastichs and includes some Spanish words in its kharja. Moreover, these poems were typically composed for oral performance. What is more, the first vocal ensemble style in the Islamic world was performed through zajal.

Moreover, during the Umayyad era, the rulers paid significant attention to music and supported professional musicians. The first musicians came to al-Andalus during the Umayyad period, and their art became so popular that it helped to spread these musical traditions throughout Iberia. Besides, the foundations of Andalusian music were laid by ‘Abd al-Raḥmān I upon his arrival on the peninsula. Another example of the importance of music in al-Andalus was the dedicated musical circles established by ‘Abd al-Raḥmān II within the palace.

Another pivotal figure in Andalusian music is Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī ibn Nāfi‘, famously known as Ziryāb. He was a student and a mawlā (freed slave) of Isḥāq al-Mawṣilī in Baghdad and emerged as one of the most important and talented oud (lute) players of his time. Born in Iraq in 789, he was nicknamed Ziryāb (meaning “blackbird”) due to his dark complexion and remarkable vocal eloquence. There were three significant sources about Ziryāb’s profound knowledge: the mentorship of Ibrāhīm al-Mawṣilī and his son, Isḥāq; his interactions with other contemporary masters, and the rich cultural and intellectual heritage of Baghdad.

Furthermore, Ziryāb possessed a natural genius for music. His teacher, Isḥāq al-Mawṣilī, introduced him to the Abbasid Caliph Hārūn al-Rashīd, who was impressed by his capabilities. According to historical sources, when Isḥāq realised the Caliph’s immense satisfaction, he felt threatened by his student’s rising star and gave Ziryāb an ultimatum to leave Baghdad. Consequently, Ziryāb departed for the West, traveling through Syria and then Qayrawan. During this journey, he corresponded with Emir al-Ḥakam I, who invited him to al-Andalus. However, by the time Ziryāb arrived, the Emir had passed away, and his son ‘Abd al-Raḥmān II, whose reign is celebrated in history as Ayyām al-‘Arūs (The Days of the Bride) for its peace and prosperity, had ascended the throne. Hence, Ziryab initially wanted to go back, but the new Emir asked to see him; thus, he went to al-Andalus with his family. Upon his arrival, Emir ‘Abd alRaḥmān II received Ziryāb and his family with great honors and arranged a house, the Sidonia Palace, and a salary for them.

In addition, Ziryāb made many innovations in al-Andalus across various fields, such as geography, astronomy, gastronomy and fashion. Specifically in music, he used different methods in teaching music and playing the oud. Besides,‘Abd al-Raḥmān II established a music school in Córdoba for him, where he began to teach. His approach differed from conventional music education methods because Ziryāb separated instruction into three parts: the first, teaching rhythm, measure and singing lyrics with instruments; the second, teaching tunes in a basic style; and finally, teaching musical nuances. According to sources, his legacy is preserved in a work titled Kitâb Akhbār Ziryāb.

Moreover, Ziryāb was a dedicated educator; he developed innovative pedagogical methods to cultivate his students’ talents, ensuring they achieved mastery in singing. Beyond his teaching, he introduced groundbreaking innovations to the oud. Most notably, he added a fifth string, dyed red to symbolize the soul in the middle of the oud’s string. While he was playing the oud, he useda plectrum made from a vulture or eagle feather instead of a wooden one. Similarly, he used light materials and made the oud’s strings from gut (traditionally attributed to young lions’ bowels) to achieve a more resonant and delicate sound.

In the final analysis, throughout history, humankind has found a way to express emotions and beauty with music. People have danced and cried to different melodies. Undoubtedly, Andalusian music has its own unique characteristics, and Ziryāb contributed to Eastern and Western musical traditions, creating a lasting cultural legacy in al-Andalus.

Bibliography

· Adıgüzel, Adnan, and Esra Sinjar.”Geçmişten Günümüze Mûsikîşinâs Ziryab’ın Endülüs Kültür Hayatına ve Avrupa’ya Etkileri.” Yakın Doğu Üniversitesi slam Tetkikleri Merkezi Dergisi 2, no. 1(Spring 2016): 71–96.

· Bakır, Seda.”Endülüs’te Müslüman, Hristiyan, Yahudi Müzik Kültürlerinin Gelişimi ve Müzik Türleri.” Yegah Musicology Journal 8, no. 1 (2025): 705–24.

· Erkoçoğlu, Fatih, and Fazlı Arslan.”Endülüs’ün ‘Sanat Güneşi’ Ziryâb (ö. 238/852).” stem 7, no.14 (2009): 261–81.

· Karaelma, Barış.”Endülüs’te Müzik Hayatı Üzerine Bir nceleme.” İstem 8, no. 15 (2010): 29–42.