Music has always been an essential part of human life, as human nature inherently seeks and explores beauty. Throughout history, humans have sought to discover beautiful sounds and melodies to express their emotions, dreams, and hopes. In this article, we will explore Andalusian music and the profound impact of Ziryāb’s influence upon it.
Music has always been an essential part of human life, as human nature inherently seeks andexplores beauty. Throughout history, humans have sought to discover beautiful sounds andmelodies to express their emotions, dreams, and hopes. In this article, we will explore Andalusian music and the profound impact of Ziryāb’s influence upon it.
During the Middle Ages, al-Andalus influenced other nations invarious fields, including architecture, literature, science, andmusic. It served as an example for other countries andcommunities, particularly Jews and Christians living togetherduring that period. The history of this influence began with theconquest of the Iberian Peninsula by the Arabs in 711. Followingthe conquest, although the production and performance ofmusic were initially limited, this did not hinder society’slove for art. Eventually, music became anessential part of life in al-Andalus. In addition,the foundations of professional musical theory inal-Andalus were established in the 9th century, largelyinfluenced by the musical traditions arrivingfrom the East (Mashriq), which had deepPersian and Abbasid roots.
As previously mentioned,different communities coexistedin the Iberian Peninsula. Forinstance, the ethnic Arabs formeda small but aristocratic elite. Onthe other hand, the Mozarabswere Christians who adoptedArabic culture and languagewhile maintaining their faith.Moreover, the Sephardim(Sefardíes), Jews who lived inSpain, were producing Sephardicmusic, and this musical genreexhibits distinct influences fromthe Islamic era.
Following this, the first professional musicians arrivedfrom the East, bringing with them Middle Eastern songs,such as Aṣfā, to al-Andalus. During this era, Córdobabecame a focal point for intercultural exchange, and theUmayyad rulers provided significant patronage tomusicians. To illustrate,‘Abd al-Raḥmān I hostedrenowned singers in his palace, a tradition of royalsupport that was continued by al-Ḥakam I and ‘Abd alRaḥmān II.
When we analyze the music of al-Andalus, we find twodistinct vocal forms: Muwashshaḥ and Zajal. This musicwas popular among Muslims, Christians and Jews, whotogether produced songs in both Arabic and Hebrew.Furthermore, this musical tradition significantlyinfluenced Europe and North Africa, though it had a lesspronounced effect on Ottoman and Persian music.
Firstly, I would like to introduce the muwashshaḥ. It covers a wide range of themes, includinglove, lamentation, and social criticism. The muwashshaḥ emerged at the end of the 10 and thebeginning of the 11 centuries; it is structured with five tetrastichs called aghṣān, each with itsown rhyme scheme. Additionally, between these tetrastichs, there is a refrain, and the poemtypically concludes with a kharja, which holds as much importance as the opening maṭla‘.Notably, while the main body of the poem is usually written in classical Arabic, the kharja iswritten in Andalusian Arabic.
The other vocal type is zajal, a vernacular poetic style. In this form, poets do not strictly adhereto formal grammatical rules, instead utilizing a simpler, more colloquial Arabic in theircompositions. Additionally, people who perform zajal are called zajjāl. Furthermore, zajal is theresult of interaction between the local people and the Arabs; thus, it represents an adaptation oflocal musical traditions. Usually, it consists of five or six tetrastichs and includes some Spanishwords in its kharja. Moreover, these poems were typically composed for oral performance. Whatis more, the first vocal ensemble style in the Islamic world was performed through zajal.
Moreover, during the Umayyad era, the rulers paid significant attention to music and supportedprofessional musicians. The first musicians came to al-Andalus during the Umayyad period, andtheir art became so popular that it helped to spread these musical traditions throughout Iberia.Besides, the foundations of Andalusian music were laid by ‘Abd al-Raḥmān I upon his arrival onthe peninsula. Another example of the importance of music in al-Andalus was the dedicatedmusical circles established by ‘Abd al-Raḥmān II within the palace.
Another pivotal figure in Andalusian music is Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī ibn Nāfi‘, famously known asZiryāb. He was a student and a mawlā (freed slave) of Isḥāq al-Mawṣilī in Baghdad andemerged as one of the most important and talented oud (lute) players of his time. Born in Iraq in789, he was nicknamed Ziryāb (meaning “blackbird”) due to his dark complexion and remarkablevocal eloquence. There were three significant sources about Ziryāb’s profound knowledge: thementorship of Ibrāhīm al-Mawṣilī and his son, Isḥāq; his interactions with other contemporarymasters, and the rich cultural and intellectual heritage of Baghdad.
Furthermore, Ziryāb possessed a natural genius for music. His teacher, Isḥāq al-Mawṣilī,introduced him to the Abbasid Caliph Hārūn al-Rashīd, who was impressed by his capabilities.According to historical sources, when Isḥāq realised the Caliph’s immense satisfaction, he feltthreatened by his student’s rising star and gave Ziryāb an ultimatum to leave Baghdad.Consequently, Ziryāb departed for the West, traveling through Syria and then Qayrawan. Duringthis journey, he corresponded with Emir al-Ḥakam I, who invited him to al-Andalus. However,by the time Ziryāb arrived, the Emir had passed away, and his son ‘Abd al-Raḥmān II, whosereign is celebrated in history as Ayyām al-‘Arūs (The Days of the Bride) for its peace andprosperity, had ascended the throne. Hence, Ziryab initially wanted to go back, but the new Emirasked to see him; thus, he went to al-Andalus with his family. Upon his arrival, Emir ‘Abd alRaḥmān II received Ziryāb and his family with great honors and arranged a house, the SidoniaPalace, and a salary for them.
In addition, Ziryāb made many innovations in al-Andalus across various fields, such asgeography, astronomy, gastronomy and fashion. Specifically in music, he used different methodsin teaching music and playing the oud. Besides,‘Abd al-Raḥmān II established a music school inCórdoba for him, where he began to teach. His approach differed from conventional musiceducation methods because Ziryāb separated instruction into three parts: the first, teachingrhythm, measure and singing lyrics with instruments; the second, teaching tunes in a basic style;and finally, teaching musical nuances. According to sources, his legacy is preserved in a worktitled Kitâb Akhbār Ziryāb.
Moreover, Ziryāb was a dedicated educator; he developed innovative pedagogical methods tocultivate his students’ talents, ensuring they achieved mastery in singing. Beyond his teaching, heintroduced groundbreaking innovations to the oud. Most notably, he added a fifth string, dyedred to symbolize the soul in the middle of the oud’s string. While he was playing the oud, he useda plectrum made from a vulture or eagle feather instead of a wooden one. Similarly, he usedlight materials and made the oud’s strings from gut (traditionally attributed to young lions’bowels) to achieve a more resonant and delicate sound.
In the final analysis, throughout history, humankind has found a way to express emotions andbeauty with music. People have danced and cried to different melodies. Undoubtedly, Andalusianmusic has its own unique characteristics, and Ziryāb contributed to Eastern and Western musicaltraditions, creating a lasting cultural legacy in al-Andalus.
Bibliography
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· Bakır, Seda.”Endülüs’te Müslüman, Hristiyan, Yahudi Müzik Kültürlerinin Gelişimi ve MüzikTürleri.” Yegah Musicology Journal 8, no. 1 (2025): 705–24.
· Erkoçoğlu, Fatih, and Fazlı Arslan.”Endülüs’ün ‘Sanat Güneşi’ Ziryâb (ö. 238/852).” stem 7, no.14 (2009): 261–81.
· Karaelma, Barış.”Endülüs’te Müzik Hayatı Üzerine Bir nceleme.” İstem 8, no. 15 (2010): 29–42.